Business Studies Customer Needs Essay Essay Example for Free

Business Studies Customer Needs Essay Essay ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd ’provide floor covering and high quality carpets all over the UK. The services that it provides are: * free estimating, * free carpet removal, * a quality fitting to your standard * a free car park adjacent to the shop. * Competition? ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ has quite a bit of competition. It is placed close to the ‘Spindles Shopping Centre’. Also there is another carpet shop quite close by to ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ called ‘Roll Ends’. But ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ is placed just off a high street and advertises around the country. Also, just about a mile away is another carpet shop, placed in the middle of a retail park. This could offer some competition for ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’. This is an image of the carpet right about a mile away from ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’.’Carpet Right’ is surrounded by other shops and is placed in a retail park. This is a bonus for customers to go to ‘Carpet Right’ because there are other furniture/carpet shops in the retail park and a there is a bigger car park. ‘Carpet Right’ is also placed around a busy motorway, so this means that many people passing will know that there is a carpet shop and probably go there in the future. * Where is it? This map shows ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ symbolised by the ‘A’ marker. This shows the regional area around the shop. As you can see, the shop is near to Manchester and has an excellent motorway link which can enable customers to travel to the shop conveniently. The satellite map above shows ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ via the green circle. It also shows ‘Spindles Shopping Centre’ by the red circle. The blue circle shows ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ competition ‘Roll End Carpets’. The map also shows the surrounding area of the shop and the local businesses of the shop. There are also a number of bus stops around the shop; this allows customers to travel to the business easily. There is also a tram link currently being made on ‘Union Street’ and this will then enable customers to travel to the shop easily and quickly. * The shop The picture above shows the front of the shop. As you can see the name of the business is clearly displayed all the way round it. This picture shows the inside of the shop. As you can see there are many rolls of carpets on display so the customers can experience the carpets before they buy it. This picture shows the rear of the shop. As you can see there is a car park for the customers. * The website This is a screen shot of the Google search I did to see how easy it was to find my business on the internet. As you can see it is the fifth business to come up on the search engine so it is very easy for the customers to find it. Here is a screenshot of the home page of ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’. You can see easily one of the types of carpets that they fit and in the bottom right hand corner their shop (the red circle). At the top of the page it shows the tabs which direct customers easily to the relevant section (the green circle). One way that ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ meets its customer need is by training its staff. They do this so that the staff know how to do their job and deal with any customers. Training them helps the staff to know how to deal with any problems in the business and what to do in different situations. Training the staff also gives them better knowledge of the product itself so that they can advise customers as to what carpet would suit their budget and requirements the best. A second way that ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ meets customer needs is by the quality of their service. They have to do this to eliminate and exceed whatever their competition is doing. A way that they do this is by giving its customers: free estimating, free carpet removal, a quality fitting to your standard and a free car park adjacent to the shop. By doing this ‘Lees Heginbotham’ can add this to and advertisement and this will increase customer satisfaction. A third way that ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ meets customer needs is by dealing with any complaints from customers. If there are any customer complaints ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ will have to deal with it immediately. ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ will have to be polite with the customer even if they are not. If ‘Lees Heginbotham Sons Ltd’ deal with a customer complaint quickly this might increase customer satisfaction.

Personal Reflection on Learning Outcomes of Professional Practice

Personal Reflection on Learning Outcomes of Professional Practice In order to reflect upon my learning throughout this module, I will identify and critically discuss three Module Learning outcomes that reflect the range of possible issues of the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) Proficiencies (2004). I will then identify appropriate literature and reflect on my learning and experience. This will enable me to identify personal strengths and areas for further development. The first learning outcome is: Recognise the importance of reflective practice and understand the process of reflection. The second outcome chosen is: Discuss the difference between data and information?. The third outcome is: Demonstrate appropriate non-verbal and verbal skills, including the use of silence, open and closed questions and summarising, to gather information. *Please note that the names of the patients mentioned in this essay have been changed in order to protect their identity for confidentiality reasons. 1 Recognise the importance of reflective practice and understand the process of reflection This outcome relates to the NMC Proficiency of Demonstrate the responsibility for ones own learning through the development of a Record of Achievement of practice and recognise when further learning is required. Reflection is a new method of learning for me. With regard to nursing, the term reflection and reflective practice has been defined by many academics, resulting in various models and theories being developed. The Oxford Mini-dictionary for Nurses (2008) describes reflection as the careful consideration of personal actions, including the ability to review, analyse and evaluate situations during or after events. It is an essential part of the learning process that will result in new methods of approaching and understanding nursing practice. Johns (2000) defines reflection as a window through which the practitioner can view and focus self within the context of his/her own lived experience in ways that enable him/her to confront, understand and work towards resolving the contradictions within his/her practice between what is desirable and actual practice. Schon (1983) proposed that reflection occurs on action or in action. The first occurs after the incident whereas the latter occurs during the incident and is said to be the hallmark of the experienced professional (Somerville Keeling, 2004). The more traditional theories and models base reflection on critical incidents. Love (1996) states that a critical incident does not have to be negative or dramatic but should provide deep thought and raise a professional issue. Gibbs (1988) developed The Reflective Cycle. The model divides the reflective process into sections; Description, Feelings, Evaluation, Analysis, Conclusion and Action Plan (see Appendix 1). Johns (2000) developed a Model of Structured Reflection (MSR) (see Appendix 2) As with Gibbs (1988) Reflective Cycle, the MSR uses a series of questions to guide an individual through the reflective process. Johns model is based on five cue questions; Description, Reflection, Influencing Factors, Could I have dealt with it better? and Learning. The volume of studies and models on reflection demonstrates the value that is placed on this tool. Newell (1992) described the process of reflection to be a cornerstone of nursing professionalism. Gustafsson and Fagerberg (2004) support the notion that reflection is a vital tool and advantageous in terms of the improvement of a nurses professional development and patient care. Many consider journal writing to be an effective reflection strategy (Johns 2000; Paterson, 1995; Cameron Mitchell, 1993; Lauterbach Becker, 1996). Journal writing is considered to offer writers the opportunity to become participants/observers of their own learning, to describe a significant experience and to reflect on that experience to see what they can learn from having had it (Weisberg and Duffin, 1995). While in clinical practice, I have written a journal of my experiences. I recognise its value to aid reflection as I feel that the act of writing things down is important. This is supported by Somerville and Keeling (2004). To demonstrate my understanding of reflective practice, I will now reflect on an incident that occurred while on placement when I was feeding a patient, named Tom*. I will utilise Gibbs (1988) model as this is my first experience of using reflection and feel that it is concise and appropriate at this stage. Tom had dementia and had recently suffered a stroke, which had left him confined to bed. As Tom had difficulty feeding himself, I offered to assist him; he smiled, agreed and appeared to recognise me. Halfway through the meal, Tom became agitated and asked if the food was mackerel. I told him that it was turkey. He shouted aggressively that he wanted mackerel and then became verbally abusive towards me. I was unable to calm him so I left the room with an assurance that I would be back soon. I then asked a senior nurse for help. This was the first time that I had fed a patient but felt comfortable. I knew Tom well and felt that I had built up a rapport with him. I was pleased that he seemed happy and relaxed. When he shouted I felt shocked, worried and conscious of other peoples reactions; they may think that I had done something wrong. Even though Tom was disabled he did have some use of one arm so I was afraid that he might become violent. I was upset that I had to stop feeding him and leave the room. When I left I felt relieved but also anxious that I may have contributed to the way Tom was feeling. When evaluating and analysing the incident, I was pleased initially with the way the task started as on admission he had a poor appetite. The negative side of the situation was that Tom became angry and didnt finish his meal. I realise that dementia is a complex progressive illness and there may be times when a patient experiences sudden mood changes. I believe that I would now do things differently if a similar situation arose. With hindsight, I questioned whether I should have just agreed with Tom that the turkey was mackerel then this incident may not have occurred. However, this raises ethical issues such as whether it can be acceptable to not tell the truth. A report published by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2009) discusses the ethics of dementia care and states that ethical dilemmas arise on a daily basis for all those providing care for people with dementia. Research suggests that challenging someone with dementia could be detrimental and cause unnecessary distress (Shellenberger, 2004). Naomi Feil developed validation therapy between 1963 and 1980 as a technique to communicate with patients with dementia by recognising and accepting their view of reality of people with dementia in order to provide them with empathy and respect (The Validation Training Institute, Inc). In the future I could use this technique; for exa mple, when Tom asked if it was mackerel he was eating I could have replied by asking him if he liked mackerel which would have avoided giving a direct answer. With regard to strengths and areas of development, I feel that I have reflected successfully on this incident. However I would like to strive to reflect in action as opposed to on action as this is the most effective. In terms of development, I believe that it would be beneficial to patients and myself to learn more about caring for patients with dementia. The Dementia UK Report (2007) published by The Alzheimers Society states that there are currently 700,000 people with dementia in the UK. The report also predicts that by 2025 there will be over 1 million people with dementia so it is inevitable that I will be caring for many dementia patients in my career. In summary, although the models of reflection span over 20 years and vary slightly, the principle of reflection is very similar, which implies that reflection is a robust tool and still applies to modern nursing. I have learnt that reflective practice is a vital tool, particularly when associated with journal writing. Continuous reflection will allow me to develop skills and knowledge to enable me to provide the best care possible for patients and their families. 2 Discuss the difference between data and information This learning outcome links to the NMC proficiency of Demonstrate literacy, numeracy and computer skills needed to record, enter, store, retrieve and organise data essential for care delivery. As a student Im not involved in using my computer skills on the ward but eventually will be involved in audit and data entry. My literacy and computer skills are demonstrated throughout my portfolio and assignment. I demonstrate my literacy and numeracy skills when writing patient evaluations, calculating fluid balance and assisting with drug calculations. There are many examples of data and information used within nursing care. Due to the broad nature of this area I have focused on a particular type of data and information to demonstrate my understanding of these terms. My focus is data collected from patients vital signs and the information that relates to this. I will demonstrate how the process of giving information to patients rather than just data is an essential part of nursing. Gathering, giving and recording both data and information accurately is vital. Data can be described as facts and statistics used for reference or analysis. The term information can be defined as the meaning applied to the data (Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 2008). Observation data collected from patients includes pulse rate and rhythm, blood pressure, respiration rate, temperature and oxygen saturate percentage. These measurements are taken on admission as it is important to gain base-line readings to which future readings can be compared. It is necessary to apply meaning to this data to form information to be able to judge a patients condition. Throughout the module I have learnt what data means in terms of acceptable values. As I now have the information about the data I can make judgments about data. For example, I now know that the information I can get from the blood pressure data of 160/110 mmHg is high (Blood Pressure Association). However, this information needs to be put into context to allow use of the information to make a judgement. For example, if a patient has just completed cardiovascular exercise, this may account for a high blood pressure reading. With this information, the plan would be to wait for 30 minutes before repeating to gain more accurate data. Readings can vary temporarily due to a number of reasons; for example, medication, an existing health condition, fluid intake, exercise and alcohol consumption. However, a change in blood pressure can indicate deterioration in condition, which alerts health care professionals to investigate. In order to show my understanding of the difference between data and information I will now give an example of an incident that occurred while on placement. During observations of a 70 year-old lady named Eileen*, I noticed that her systolic blood pressure had dropped from 127 to 90 mmHg. Her other observations remained consistent. I informed a senior nurse who asked a doctor to review the patient. I discussed her fluid intake with her as this could have had an adverse effect on her blood pressure. As she had only drank a small amount I encouraged her to drink more and continued monitoring. Eileens blood pressure eventually returned to her baseline. This example shows how data, such as blood pressure readings, prompts gathering information which, in turn, enables problem solving. As demonstrated, I need to have an understanding of the information gathered from the data but additionally I feel that it is important that patients understand what the data means. Bastable (2006) defined patient education as the process of assisting people to learn health related behaviours so that they can incorporate those behaviours into everyday life and achieve a goal of optimal health and independence in self care. I will now provide an example of my experience of patient education: During a blood pressure check on Paul*, who was hypertensive and took multiple medications, I asked him whether he would like to learn about blood pressures. He gladly agreed so I explained what the reading was and what can affect blood pressure. I explained that exercise, healthy eating, low salt intake and weight control would have a beneficial effect on his blood pressure. He was unaware of how his current lifestyle could have a detrimental effect on blood pressure and said that he now intended to make some lifestyle changes. Research supports my thoughts about the benefits of giving patients information about aspects of their health rather than just the data. Florence Nightingale, who has been described as the founder of modern nursing, recognised the importance of educating about adequate nutrition, personal hygiene and exercise in order to improve well-being (Bastable, 2006). The Department of Health (2009) states that giving people relevant, reliable information enables them to understand their health requirements and make the right choice for themselves and their families. (Bastable, 2008). Partridge and Hill (2000) found that patients who are well informed are better able to manage their health, have improved psychological outcomes, have fewer exacerbations of their condition and less hospital admissions. Glanville (2000) states that if clients cannot maintain or improve their health status when on their own, we have failed to help them reach their potential. Abbott (1998) reported that by involving patients in their state of health by keeping them informed has been proved to improve patient satisfaction and concordance. However, there is research to suggest that providing information may not result in a change in health outcomes (Kole, 1995; Sherer et al. 1998). They found these reasons to be that patients dont understand the information, are unable to absorb it due to pain, anxiety, or that they choose not to act upon it. Additionally, absorption of information is decreased when there is too much information; therefore health outcomes remain unchanged. The question is how much is too much information? This is difficult to determine. In terms of personal strengths, I felt very satisfied that I had initiated this conversation which resulted in Paul considering lifestyle changes. On reflection, this incident highlighted the importance of patient understanding and has encouraged me to take time to educate patients where possible. It has emphasised the need for continuous learning so that I am able to answer questions and educate patients. Additionally, I am aware of my limitations and when to seek advice or refer patients to others. I also need to develop confidence in speaking to patients about sensitive issues such as weight management by researching this area. 3 Demonstrate appropriate non-verbal and verbal skills, including the use of silence, open and closed questions and summarising, to gather information This outcome relates to the NMC Proficiency of Engage in, develop and disengage from therapeutic relationships through the use of appropriate communication and interpersonal skills. Communication is a reciprocal process that involves the exchange of both verbal and non verbal messages to convey feelings, information, ideas and knowledge (Wilkinson 1999; Wallace 2001). In nursing, communication and information gathering is essential to provide quality care. Sheldon, Barrett Ellington (2006) report that Communication is a cornerstone of the nurse-patient relationship. Information gathering commences from when the nurse greets the patient. In order to communicate non-verbal and verbal cues are used. Non-verbal skills are portrayed with body language and impact on communication (Hargie Dickson 2004). These include posture, facial expressions, head movement, eye contact and hand gestures showing active listening. Verbal skills include the use of silence, open and closed questions and summarising. The tone of voice and rate of response are significant. The emphasis is on effective communication; the way we communicate can hinder or enhance the information we gather. Sheldon et al. (2006) state that the power of effective nursing care is strengthened and enriched by good communication. Maguire and Pitceathly (2002) suggest that clinicians with good communication skills identify patients problems more accurately, patients are more satisfied with their care and are less anxious. It has been reported that that ineffective communication can lead to patients not engaging with the healthcare system, refusing to follow recommended advice and failing to cope with the psychological consequences of their illness (Berry, 2007). The scenario below demonstrates my understanding of appropriate verbal and non-verbal cues. It is part of a conversation with a patient on admission regarding current medical history. When meeting Arthur*, a 78 year old, I smiled, introduced myself and explained the purpose of our conversation. I asked Arthur Do you have any chest problems? he answered Yes. I then asked What chest problems do you have and how do they affect you? he answered I have emphysema causing wheezing and a cough. I also get breathless when walking and have oxygen at night I left a brief silence at this point. Arthur then disclosed I cough up a lot of horrible phlegm in the morning which is embarrassing. He then asked will I get a chest x-ray. I asked Have you any particular worries about your chest? to which he replied well I am quite worried about lung cancer. I told him that I would pass on his concern to the doctor and then summarised our conversation. With regard to verbal responses, I initially asked a closed question as I wanted a specific answer. Silverman et al. (2005) supports the theory that closed questions are appropriate when wanting to narrow the potential answer. Due to Arthurs response I asked an open question to encourage him to go into more detail. An open question often results in a lengthy answer, so I used fillers such as mmm throughout, to show active listening and to encourage him to continue. The brief pause was successful as it enabled Arthur to disclose his embarrassment. I summarised his response in order to clarify what Arthur had said for my own benefit but also to give the patient confidence that I had understood and opportunity to correct me if not. With regard to my non-verbal communication, I kept an open posture with eye contact and leant forward slightly to show that I was listening. I also ensured that my facial expressions were appropriate. For example, when greeting Arthur I smiled, but during descriptions of distressing symptoms my facial expression was one of concern. Egan (2002) supports the notion that conveying these non-verbal cues in this way will facilitate emotional disclosure and encourage the patient to talk more freely. Egan derived the acronym SOLER to portray awareness of the non-verbal responses; facing squarely, maintaining an open posture, leaning slightly forward, having appropriate eye contact and being relaxed. There are approximately 700,000 different non-verbal cues that may or may not have meaning (Birdwhistell, 1970; Pei, 1997). As nurses, we must be aware of our use of non-verbal cues as they can convey unintentional meaning. In addition to awareness of our responses it is imperative to be aware of patient cues, as this is part of the information gathering process. Arthurs hesitancy indicated to me to remain silent to encourage further disclosure. Being aware of patients verbal responses is more straightforward than what their non-verbal responses convey and it may be that patients body language contradict the spoken word (Miller, 1995). Barriers to communication include anxiety, language, hearing, sight or speech impairment. During communication, I would like to think that I am non judgemental. According to Underman Boggs (1999) most of us have personal biases regarding others that are based on previous experiences. In relation to my scenario, Fuller (1995) suggests that health care professionals may underestimate the verbal capacity or abilities of older people, which results in their conversations being undervalued. In terms of personal strengths, I feel fairly confident with the use of verbal and non-verbal cues and how these can deter or catalyse communication. I feel that I used silence successfully as Arthur disclosed embarrassment and mentioned about an x-ray, which he may not have done otherwise. I was able to reassure him that we would provide a disposable sputum pot and acknowledged his fear of cancer. I realise that it can be difficult communicating about sensitive information and this is an area of development for me, which I feel will improve with experience. Although at this stage of training I would not be expected to lead consultations for diagnostic purposes, it was informative to research consultation models. I intend to become more familiar with these models in order to utilise some of the communication skills (Newell, 1994). To form an overall conclusion, I feel that through theoretical learning and clinical experience I have demonstrated my achievement of the NMC Proficiencies (2004). I have critically discussed and concluded each learning outcome in turn throughout the essay but to summarise; patient focus and effective communication are paramount. I feel that in terms of reflection, self-awareness is key (Rowe, 1999). This will enable me to look at my skills to recognise strengths and areas of development to ultimately provide best practice in patient care. I realise that I will gain experience and confidence as my training progresses. Word Count: 3289 References Abbott, S. A.(1998) The benefits of patient education Gastroenterol Nursing. 1998 Sep-Oct;21(5):207-9. Bastable, S. (2006) Essentials of Patient Education. London. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Bastable, S. (2008) Nurse as Educator: Principles of Teaching and Learning for Nursing Practice. Third Edition. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Berry, D. (2007) as cited in Health Communication: Theory and Practice (Health Psychology). Berkshire: Open University Press. Birdwhistell, R. (1970) as cited in Nursing knowledge and Practice; foundations for decision making. London: Bailliere Tindall. Blood Pressure Association www.bpassoc.org.uk. [11th November 2009] Cameron, B. Mitchell, A. (1993) Reflective peer journals: developing authentic nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 18, 290 297. Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2008) Eleventh Edition Revised. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dementia: Ethical Issues Report (October 2009) published by Nuffield Council on Bioethics (http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org) [13th December 2009] Dementia UK Report (Feb 2007) published on The Alzheimers Society (http://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?categoryID=200120documentID=341) [7th December 2009] Department of Health (2009) Better information, better choices, better health. London. Department of Health. Egan, G. (2002) as cited in The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of Clinical Nursing Procedures. Student Edition, Seventh Edition. London: Wiley-Blackwell. Fuller, D. (1995) Challenging ageism through our speech. Nursing Times. 91, 21, 29-31. As cited by Miller, L. (2002) Effective communication with older people. Nursing Standard. 17, 9, 45-50. Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Oxford Polytechnic. Oxford. Gibbs, G. (1988) Reflective Cycle. Queen Mary University http://www.qmu.ac.uk/els/docs/reflection1.pdf. [20th October 2009] Glanville, I. (2000) Moving Towards Health Oriented Patient Education (HOPE). Holistic Nursing Practice. 14(2) 57-66. Gustafsson, C. Fagerberg, I. (2004) Reflection, the way to professional development?. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 271-280. Hargie, O. Dickson, D .(2004) as cited in The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of Clinical Nursing Procedures. Student Edition, Seventh Edition. London: Wiley-Blackwell. Johns, C. (2000) Becoming a reflective practitioner. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Kole, L. (1995) A lot of knowledge is not enough: compliance and a positive outcome with asthma require more than knowledge. Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants. 8, 3, 8 11. As cited by Caress, A. L. (2003) Giving information to patients. Nursing Standard. 17, 43, 47-54. Lauterbach, S. Becker, P. (1996) Caring for self: becoming a self-reflective nurse. Holistic Nurse Practitioner 10(2) 57-68. Love, C. (1996) Critical Incidents and Post Registration Education and Practice. Professional Nurse. 11(9) 576. Maguire, P. Pitceathly, C. (2002) Key communication skills and how to acquire them. British Medical Journal. September 28; 325(7366): 697-700. Miller, L. (1995) The human face of elderly care? Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery.1, 4, 103-105. Ac cited by Miller, L. (2002) Effective communication with older people. Nursing Standard. 17, 9, 45-50. Naomi Feil http://www.vfvalidation.org/web.php?request=Naomi_Feil_Bio [7th December 2009]. Newell, R. (1992) Anxiety, accuracy and reflection: the limits of professional development. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 17, 1326-1333. Newell, R. (1994) Interviewing skills for nurses and other health care professionals. London: Routledge, Oxford Mini-dictionary for Nurses (2008). Royal College of Nursing. Sixth Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Partridge, M. Hill, S. (2000) Enhancing care for people with asthma: the role of communication, education, training and self-management. European Respiratory Journal. 16, 2, 333-348. As cited by Caress, A. L. (2003) Giving information to patients. Nursing Standard. 17, 43, 47-54. Paterson, B. (1995) Developing and maintaining reflection in clinical journals. Nurse Education Today. 15, 211-220. Pei, M. (1997) as cited in Nursing knowledge and Practice; foundations for decision making. London: Bailliere Tindall. Rowe, J. (1999) Self-awareness: improving nurse-client interactions. Nursing Standard. 14, 8, 37-40. Scherer, Y.K., Schmieder, L.E., and Shimmel, S. (1998)The effects of education alone and in combination with pulmonary rehabilitation on self-efficacy in patients with COPD. Rehabilitation Nursing 23: 2, 71-76. As cited by Caress, A. L. (2003) Giving information to patients. Nursing Standard. 17, 43, 47-54. Schà ¶n, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sheldon, L. K., Barrett, R. Ellington, L (2006) as cited in Nursing knowledge and Practice; foundations for decision making. London: Bailliere Tindall. Shellenberger, S. (2004) Therapeutic Lying and Other Ways To Handle Patients With Dementia. Wall Street Journal, November 11. Silverman, J., Kurtz, S. Draper, J. (2005) as cited in The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of Clinical Nursing Procedures. Student Edition, Seventh Edition. London: Wiley-Blackwell. Somerville, D Keeling, J. (2004) as cited in Nursing Times http://www.nursingtimes.net/nursing-practice-clinical-research/a-practical-approach-to-promote-reflective-practice-within-nursing/204502.article [30th October 2009] Underman Boggs, K. (1999) Communication styles. Interpersonal Relationships: Professional Communication Skills for Nursing. Third edition. Philadelphia PA, WB Saunders. Validation Training Institute Inc. http://www.vfvalidation.org/web.php?request=index [10th December 2009] Wallace, P. R. (2001) as cited in The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of Clinical Nursing Procedures. Student Edition, Seventh Edition. London: Wiley-Blackwell. Weisberg, M. Duffin, J. (1995) Evoking the moral imagination: using stories to teach ethics and professionalism to nursing, medical and law students. Change, 22. Wilkinson, S. (1999) as cited in The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of Clinical Nursing Procedures. Student Edition, Seventh Edition. London: Wiley-Blackwell. APPENDIX 1 Gibbs (1988) model of reflection

Analysis Of Chinas One Child Policy

Analysis Of Chinas One Child Policy During the mid 1900s, Chinas population was growing at an alarming rate, increasing by at least 2 or more percent each year (Potts 2006:361). Estimated to reach 1.3 billion by the year 2000, Chinese government officials were worried that such extreme growth would serve to harm the potential for future economic growth. Even maintaining acceptable living standards was becoming difficult, with much of the population living in poverty. It was clear that action had to be taken in order to rapidly slow the growth at which Chinas population was expanding. Fertility rates-the average number of children born per woman-needed to drastically decrease so that China would be able to develop as a country able to have influence on a world scale. The One-Child Policy was created and put into action in 1979 in an attempt to limit the number of offspring that families could produce. The majority of families were restricted to bearing only one child, reducing the size of each subsequent generation. Att empts to abide by these laws has led to many potential children being aborted, and many others being put up for adoption. Further impacting the fates of these children is Chinas long standing traditional preference for boys. Many female children have been selectively aborted or put up for adoption, so that families can have another chance at producing a son. The One-Child Policy has been the determinant of two very significant parts of my family. At four years old, my cousin Emma was born. When I was five, she joined our family. Four years later, Darci arrived. Neither girl was born into a Canadian family, nor do they bear any physical resemblances to their parents. Both adopted by my aunt and uncle as infants, my cousins became part of our family as a result of Chinas one-child policy. The majority of others in their adoptive groups are also girls. In my paper, I am going to explore the consequences of Chinas One-Child policy, especially focusing on gender roles, and how the policy has impacted the way in which individuals of different genders are valued and treated. I will analyze the effects that the policy has had based on familial desires, economical incentives, and educational goals. Finally, I will comment on how the policy must be adapted if China wishes to maintain control over its population, both in terms of growth and citizen compliance. Family Traditionally, Chinese culture has followed a very patriarchal structure. As in most countries, males were more valued than females and took on the responsibilities of providing for his family. Women were submissive to the men in the household, and when a marriage occurred, it was the brides duty to leave her birth family in order to become a part of her new husbands (Deutsch 2006:367). In 1979, and even today, many families are of the mindset that a son is more valuable to them than a daughter. Allowed only one offspring, a son is often the more desirable choice for households (ibid:367). There are a few reasons for this. Especially in China, the males ability to carry on the family name is a major factor. As many women take on their husbands last name upon marriage, her maiden name ceases to be a part of her, in practical usage. If a family is allowed to have multiple children, one daughter does not necessarily mean that the family lineage will be discontinued. There is always the possibility for a new son to be born, able to represent the family name his entire life. However, when this option is taken away, many couples feel increased pressure to bear a son on the first try. The development of ultrasound technology in recent years allows couples to learn the gender of their child before it is born. Although this can be an advantage in many ways, knowledge of a female daughter means that there is an opportunity to abort the pregnancy before its advanced stages. While I am not going to comment on the moral issues associated with the abortion itself, frequent abortions of female fetuses has led to a severe imbalance of girls and boys. This will be discussed in more detail later. Economics There is also an economical incentive to take into account here. No different from many other places, males tend to earn higher salaries than females and obtain jobs in more skilled and demanding work placements. While this was not an effect created by the One-Child Policy, the differences in employment between men and women began to increase around the same time as the policy was enacted. Economic reforms introduced in the 1970s gave greater independence to businesses in regards to their labour and operations policies. Rather than a goal of equal labour, businesses were now allowed to make the majority of their hiring decisions and assign what they felt were appropriate wage rates for their employees (Wang and Cai 2008:442). This only served to increase the value differential between males and females. Overall wages gradually increased over time, with males eventually taking over many of the top sector jobs and earning higher wages. A study done (ibid:444) determined that even thoug h women make up a larger percentage of the lower three job sectors, it is still men that are taking home the greater amount. For whatever reason, whether it is for educational reasons or pure gender role discrimination, employers have a clear tendency to prefer male workers over female employees. This gender preference has translated itself into an effect on the One-Child Policy, where families desire sons more heavily than daughters. As the parents of the first generation of One-Child offspring move into retirement age, they will have only one child on whom to rely for financial support. As opposed to previous generations, in which the burden of caring for ones parents could be split between multiple siblings, One-Child adults are faced with the burden of caring for parents individually. Granted, with fewer children to bring up, the cost of parenting is lower which allows for greater saving, however Chinas lack of a substantial pension plan makes it difficult for Chinese citizens t o save enough to support themselves entirely throughout retirement (Potts 2006: 361). Nor do children have the option of defecting care of their parents to a third party: Article 21 of the Marriage Law of the Peoples Republic of China (1980) specifically renders children with the duty to support and assist their parents. This forces only children to bear both the fiscal and social responsibilities of caring for their elderly parents. While it is not ludicrous to ask a child to care for a parent, the One-Child Policy simply intensifies this responsibility, especially if the child is not in substantial financial situation for only him or herself. A daughter, hurt with the plausibility of a lower paying workplace, is more likely to have a harder time supporting her parents than a son would, more able to obtain a financially lucrative position. For these reasons, among others, Chinese couples often weight the value of a son as higher than that of a daughter. However, the higher value placed on male children causes many potential daughters to be aborted, abandoned as infants, or put up for adoption (Martinez 2008:86). Since the one child policy was enacted in 1979, there has been a gradual, but significant, increase in the ratio of males to females, with approximately 33 million more boys than girls under 20 reported in the 2005 census (Nature 2009:1). The shortage of women available to wed leaves many potential grooms unable to find matches, affecting the lives of many Chinese citizens. The One-Child Policy negatively affects Chinese society in this manner, as well as intensifying gender stereotypes that have been persistent in the history of the Chinese people. On the other hand, couples that do end up bearing only one daughter tend to internalize an alternate set of perceptions than those with a single son. Education Despite the frequent prejudices held against females in China, daughters brought up in an only child environment often receive certain advantages. In families of multiple children, with both girls and boys, girls were often treated as lesser family members. With largely predetermined plans, most women did not maintain a prominent position in their birth families through most of their adult life. Instead they would commit themselves to their husbands lives, integrating themselves into his family and adopting their new roles as wives and daughters-in-law. These temporary statuses often devalued daughters in the eyes of their birth families and therefore they were often denied certain opportunities and privileges than their male counterparts (Deutsch 2008:368). Although this specific mindset may be mostly outdated today, statistics show that women still tend to receive less education than men. The Chinese census taken in the year 2000 reflected a difference of approximately 1.1 years of schooling between the sexes (Cai and Wang 2008:443). However, couples that raise only one female child have only one child to rely on during their old age. As lesser schooling often leads to a lesser wage, and given the likelihood of females to earn a lower wage no matter what, parents of single daughters are more likely to invest more time and effort into their education than they might otherwise. Though still not expected to receive a higher level of education than boys, surveys taken in the late 1990s and early 2000s indicated a strong desire for equal education of both sexes (Cai and Wang 2008:443). There is a possibility that this could just be the reflection of the evolution of gender perceptions, though it is very likely that in China at the very least, the One-Child Policy had some effect on this new mentality. As touched upon earlier, the Policy forces elderly parents to rely on a single child for support in their old age. Having the option of relying solely on a female ch ild with a lesser degree of education points towards a less lucrative financial future. A parents desire for a more stable financial future may lead to the provision of a higher degree of education for his or her only daughter. Further adding onto the instability of a parents retirement well being is the fear of losing a daughter to the family of her husband. Without the possibility of additional children to depend on, parents of only daughters are less willing to give up their only child to the household of another family, and therefore tend to value self-sufficiency and education more, promoting increased gender equality. From this perspective, Chinas One-Child Policy creates both negative and positive effects. The Future of the Policy Numerous times in recent years, spokespeople for the National Population and Family Planning Commission of China have stated that the current family planning policy will not be revoked within the near future (Family Planning 2009:1). As a country with an estimated 1.3 billion people at the close of 2010, an efficient tactic for preventing overexpansion is a necessary component of national policy. The One-Child policy is still considered to be of the utmost importance for maintaining effective population control. However, as it currently exists, it is vital that a re-evaluation and revision of the policy take place. A 2009 survey indicated a desire for the allowance of second children by approximately 78% of the population (Family Planning 2010:1). As Chinas population continues to grow, it will be increasingly difficult to ensure that the policy is followed properly. Already, the policy has become harder to enforce, as the independence and wealth of the Chinese people continues to es calate (Hesketh, Lu and Xing 2005:17). The development of the country is such that the One-Child policy may not be practically feasible very shortly. An adaptation is necessary in order to upkeep the efficiency of the policy. In fact, those responsible for the policy seem to have already become aware of this. In 2002, while no major changes were made to its fundamentals elements, specific aspects of the policy were softened gently. Influenced by rising tensions between the Chinese government and its people, the strict quotas based around reproduction were done away with and couples no longer need to obtain permission to have their child (ibid:21). This was a positive step towards the future long-term continuation of the policy. In addition to the concerns of enforcement, there are other worrying issues surrounding the policy. As mentioned earlier, the insufficient numbers of females below 20 years of age is alarming. By the year 2020, it is estimated that the difference between men and women of marriageable age will be dangerously close to the 24 million mark. Authorities from within the Population Association of China are foreshadowing a spike in the sex industry of China, including the trafficking and solicitation of prostitution and pornography (Mcleod 2010:17). This severe imbalance poses an issue that must be addressed, so as to avoid continued long term damage to Chinese citizens and society. As the disproportion increases, it will become all the more necessary for the Chinese to review their Family Planning Policy and patch up the holes that are creating these issues. Conclusion Out of all the countries in the world, China is home to the greatest number of people. Shanghai, one of its most prominent cities, recently hit a landmark population of 23 million people (CNNGO 2011:4). Its population is showing no sign of slowing down naturally any time soon. Chinas rapid expansion makes a policy designated to control population a necessary element of governance. All the same, the current program working towards this goal is causing its own issues. Looking purely at the numbers, the One-Child Policy is working admirably, no doubt one of the reasons for why those in charge are hesitant to retract it. It is estimated that an astounding 250 to 300 million births have been prevented via this policy (Hesketh et al 2005:6). However, now the issues is not so much how many people make up the total population, but what people comprise it. The desire for sons has left many daughters unborn, abandoned, or put up for adoption as infants. This policy is the reason that I have tw o of my cousins, both girls adopted from China at a very young age, as part of my family. Through analyzing the effect that the One-Child Policy has had in the past 30 years, it is clear that in order to continue to be successful in the future, something must be done to re-balance the male-female demographic, as well as change the perception that many have of females as being less valuable than males. While an important part of Chinese government, the One-Child Policy must be adapted if it wishes to remain effective.

The House Of The Seven Gables- Hawthornes Personal Reflections :: essays research papers

Nathanial Hawthorne. Considered to be one of the greatest American writers of the 19th century. But did you know that he hated portraits, and it is now thought that he was a mild manic-depressive? Born in Salem, Massachusetts on July 4, 1804. A decendant of a long puritan line of Hathorne's. His ancestry included his great-great grandfather, John Hathorne who was a judge at the Salem witch trials 112 years before Nathanial was born. Judge John Hathorne charged many with the crime of witchcraft,and condemned them to their deaths. Nathanial was embaressed by this and changed the spelling of his last name from Hathorne to Hawthorne. Alot of his family history, life experiences and where he lived influenced his writing greatly. Hawthorne had a cousin, Susannah Ingersoll. When he was young, in Salem, he would frequently visit her in her mansion, she lived there alone. The house had a secret staircase and once had seven gables. This house, Nathanial visited in his youth, was his inspiration for the house in his book " The House Of The Seven Gables". The story of The House Of The Seven Gables streches over two centuries. It's the classic scenario of two rival families, in this case the Pyncheons ( weathly aristocratic puritans) and the Maules ( humbler paupers). The story of these two families begins with Matthew Maule, who owned a certain amount of land and built himself a hut to live in, in this new puritan settlement. Maule was a hard working but obscure man, who was stubborn and protected what was his. His rival arrived at the settlement about 30 to 40 years after Maule had been there. Colonel Pyncheon, an ambicious and determined man, had a high position in the town. It was said that Colonel Pyncheon was very much for the execution of those who practiced witchcraft, and it was also said that he very strongly sought the condemnation of Matthew Maule for being a wizard. Pyncheon did manage to have Maule executed but not before Maule placed a curse on Pyncheon and his decendants. These were Maules exact words : " God, God will give him blood to drink !" Many of the characters in the book were influenced by actual people in and during Nathanial's life. For example : Colonel Pyncheon was based on The Reverend Wentworth Upham, a Minister and mayor of Salem. He wrote the books : Lecture's on Withcraft and History of Witchcraft and Salem Village. The Maule name was derived from Thomas Maule, a Quaker merchant living in Salem at the time of the trials.

Keeping it Real :: Education Teaching Learning Essays

Keeping it Real Why teach students non-applicable skills? Why teach them using boring lessons that won't be memorable? Why not 'tap into students natural curiosities?' (Daniels and Bizar 1998). Throughout the readings, these were the underlying questions I repeatedly asked myself about education. I came to the conclusion that education must be authentic. As educators, we have to make students feel as if their education is a living, breathing thing. It's something alive that they can cultivate and grow. We have to constantly be assessing our teaching in order to find ways to keep education real for our students. I'm a firm believer that students come to class with a great deal to offer both peers and educators. They are resources that other students can access. They each have their own cultures, own communities, families, and life experiences that may differ from their peers'. As educators, we must utilize this, helping our students cultivate their own education from each others' and their own lives. Authentic education is just one way to help students 'access' each other in and out of the classroom. Authentic education is hands-on, real application to life. When students find information meaningful and relevant to their lives, or when they find their education practical and usable, they tend to engage more. Why not draw upon community resources, authors, artists, and other professionals outside of the classroom? This is just one way to get students involved in what's really going on in the world- which is where they spend a majority of their time. There are so many exposable issues in the real world that students can connect to in an English classroom. For example, today we are faced with ecological concerns and environmental issues in which action must be taken. There are also so many great writers that have written about nature and its fragile existence. Why not take students outdoors to read? Why not have them connect to nature, develop an appreciation for the environment, and learn at the same time?

Historical Interpretations Role in The of a national or international policy for Cultural Heritage Protection Essay

The main difference between approaches to Cultural Heritage Protection, as discussed by Muller, namely between â€Å"object-centrism† and â€Å"functionalism† is associated with the fact that the first approach regards the cultural object and its protection as a value in its own right, while the latter focuses on the cultural object in the context of its meaning for society and its processes of acculturation and socialization. Object-centrism advocates primacy of the cultural object rather than its value, be it artistic or economic (Muller, 1998). Artworks of the past are seen as valuable treasures, and the integrity of entire set of objects produced by a certain culture has to be protected. Object-centrism scholars â€Å"focus on the primacy of the heritage object, considering that it has a value existing independently of people that should not be susceptible to any change† (Loulanski, 2006, p. 215). This approach also argues for the necessity of protection of information about a given culture, and cultural objects serve as a source of such information. Thus, while archaeology is a typical example of the philosophy of object-centrism, anthropology also fits in the picture by virtue of preserving information and data about cultures. As concerns the answer to the question which is at the heart of the debate on Cultural Heritage Protection, namely whether nation state or international community should be the guardian of cultural heritage, object-centrism only cares about the safety and integrity of the cultural object and not the nature of its stewardship. Proponents of object-centrism argue that practical value of the cultural object is hard to determine, since it might have little utility now but be of great importance for future generations. And in the light of little connection between ancient and modern societies, ancient heritage is worth preservation in it own right. However, this approach has come in for much criticism: â€Å"Although the object-centric approach seems more sensible for guaranteeing the rights of existence for all cultural heritage, and modern because it prioritizes the integrity of cultural heritage, it proves to be somewhat illogical and unrealistic† (Loulanski, 2006, p. 216). Cultural objects are inherently connected to human societies and histories, thus it is unproductive to view them outside of their natural context. Rather than regarding heritage as a set of cultural objects, it should be regarded in the light of public good it is able to create: â€Å"Increasingly cultural heritage is seen as a much broader phenomenon which can contribute to political ideals, to economic prosperity and to social cohesion† (Council of Europe, 2000, p. 3). Cultural heritage has been linked to national unity, citizenship, appreciation of diversity, cultural identity and memory, amenity, sustainable development and quality of life. Graham (2002) suggests â€Å"the concept of heritage as a social construction, imagined, defined and articulated within cultural and economic practice† (p. 1003). In my view, functionalism is a more productive approach to cultural heritage protection. However, it poses dome difficulties for historical interpretation, since it denies the idea that cultural objects have value in their own right. Each nation has its own approach to assigning value to and defining functions of cultural objects. Thus, international community might disagree with interpretations suggested by nation stares. It imperative to separate historical interpretation from other forms of interpretation: â€Å"Historical interpretation must be based on a multidisciplinary archaeological and/or historical study of the site and its surroundings, yet must also indicate clearly and honestly where conjecture, hypothesis or philosophical reflection begin† (Pathways to Cultural Landscapes, 2002 p. 5). The solution to the problem is to engage all interested stakeholders in the process of historical interpretation, be they different groups within one society or different countries in the global community.

Bicycle Braking Systems

Bicycle Braking Systems Year 11 Engineering Studies Merewether High School Nathan Dunshea 29/06/2012 Abstract: In this report a comparison of three Braking systems; Calliper, Drum and Disc will be made on a variety of areas including – * * Effectiveness * Performance * Features * Materials * Frictional Components * Difference from comparable car systems An Orthogonal and Pictorial drawing will also be provided on a selected section of one of the braking systems being compared. Introduction: Bicycle Braking systems are a means of which we are able to halt the movement of a bicycle through the expulsion of kinetic energy.The Kinetic potential energy that is present in a moving bicycle is converted in to 3 different forms of energy; heat, sound and light. This is done through the resistance of a wheel to move when a brake applies a frictional force against the spinning movement of a wheel. Three different types of brakes are generally used on bicycles today; the Calliper, Drum an d Disk systems. These three popular braking systems have their own unique set of advantages and disadvantages that persuade the population to purchase them. 2: Calliper Brake Diagram : Calliper Brake Diagram 3: Disc Brake Diagram 3: Disc Brake Diagram 4: Drum Brake Diagram 4: Drum Brake Diagram Procedure: I used the Internet to research pictures, articles and suppliers of Braking systems in order to access the appropriate information needed for this report. Results: Effectiveness, Performance, Features Comparison Effectiveness: 10: Cross-Section of a bicycle drum brake 10: Cross-Section of a bicycle drum brake The effectiveness of these Braking systems will be a measure of their ability to perform over a period of time.It is necessary for these brakes not to only perform well once, but over many instances, including moments of hard excessive braking. In today’s modern bicycle, many things will affect the braking systems ability to be effective. The weather, wear and tear over many uses, as well as the type of braking taking place can all have adverse effects on brakes. Drum brakes are not the most popular style of brake for a bicycle. This could be accredited to their effectiveness over time compared to both calliper brakes and disc brakes. Drum Brakes are typically very heavy, complicated to perform maintenance on and are often subject to brake fading.Break fading can be defined as the loss of braking force able to be exerted by the braking system at any point, and this often happens due to overheating as a result of consistent hard braking. Drum brakes are unable to dissipate heat anywhere near as efficiently as disc brakes as the frictional forces that turn kinetic energy into heat are all enclosed within the drum itself, which is often housed at the hub of the wheel. In fact, many companies have been forced to put warning labels on their hubs to make sure children aren’t unaware of the heat generated, and subsequently burn themselves.This mak es them particularly susceptible to brake fading, something that both disk and calliper brakes don’t have a great problem with. In adverse weather conditions, the drum brake can show of its unique asset both the disc and calliper brake does not have. The Drum brake is fully enclosed, and therefore is not affected by rain, mud and other substances that may impede the frictional force exerted on the wheel. 12: Disc brake to be fitted to a Mountain Bike 12: Disc brake to be fitted to a Mountain Bike Disc Brakes are very popular on Mountain Bikes, which require thick wheels and are often subject to muddy terrain.Because the disc brake is mounted to the hub, a certain clearance from the ground is maintained at all times, generally keeping mud from obstructing the pads and disc. If water is to get stuck under a disc brake’s pad, there are generally holes through which it can quickly escape so to not compromise the friction produced in the system. Touring bikes have been know n to prefer disc brakes to types of calliper brakes, as the long journeys and significant use of brakes would not wear out the rim as they do using a calliper brakes system.The typical Disc Brake system is a very adaptable structure as it can perform better than Calliper Brakes in the mud, rain and snow as the coefficient of friction isn’t as at risk of contaminants disturbing the system. Disc brakes are also less prone to brake fading when subject to long periods of braking pressure, as they are very good at cooling down compared to drum and calliper brakes. A disk brake is also less likely to cause a popped tyre, with the heat not being dissipated directly into the tyre as in calliper brakes. 14: Shimano Bicycle Caliper Brake 14: Shimano Bicycle Caliper BrakeCalliper Brakes are generally the most common of the braking system for the everyday bicycle. Excluding the original design quality of the equipment and materials, calliper brakes are often affected mostly by the moistu re that is on the rim, as that will significantly hinder the ability to stop. Tyre thickness can also pose a problem to the calliper braking system, as the arms will be under greater flexion, thus lessening brake effectiveness. However, the Calliper brake system is effective on the average road bike and is the simplest and easiest to perform maintenance on of all three designs.This system also has a very big ‘mechanical advantage’, meaning very little effort has to be put in by the rider in order to properly apply the brakes. Calliper brakes are also by far the lightest and least expensive, making them popular among non-competitive riders, with most road bikes still come fitted with this system. Performance: The performance of a braking system is based on the raw stopping power and ability for one single use. This comparison will be based purely on stopping power and performance, disregarding things such as; * Weight of system * Weather/Terrain Brake Fading * Heat Dissi pation The Disc Brake is said to have the greatest stopping power, and therefore provides least stopping distance, of all three systems. This means they are often fitted to competitive riders bikes, because they are often going a higher speed and therefore need the greater stopping power that the disc brake provides compared to that of the drum and calliper braking system. In a report By Guy Kesteven for UK organisation ‘What Mountain Bike’, a variety of disc brakes were tested from many different manufacturers to test the power of each system.The test was performed as follows: â€Å"All the brakes were tested with a 180mm rotor and a 50Nm force on the lever (1N is the amount of force required to accelerate 1kg at 1m/s2), with the stock pads. To fully bed in the rotors and pads, the brakes were given 60 one-second pulls at 15km/h, followed by 30 two-second pulls at 20km/h. After a 30-second cooling-down period, the testing began. With the wheel spinning at 30km/h, each brake was applied for three seconds and then left to recover for 10 seconds. This cycle was repeated 15 times. The results were then averaged out to provide a single power rating. – Guy Kesteven; What Mountain Bike. After the test had been completed, the Formula R0 disc braking system had the greatest power of all 33 parts tested. It was found to have a power of 124 Nm when stopping, which is equal to 12. 645 kilogram-force meters. Calliper Brakes have one of the best designs in terms of their Mechanical Advantage. Very little effort has to be put in by the user to have the brakes perform as well as possible. Disc Brakes have an overall stopping power advantage over the general calliper brake, however some versions of the calliper brake have a greater stopping power than the drum brake design.With the huge variety of designs in the field of Calliper Brakes, stopping power can range from quite poor to very high. An example of this stopping power is the test carried out by Mat t Pacocha in the June 2009 edition of Velonews. A group of Bicycle Calliper brakes were to be tested to measure their stopping power: â€Å"This test was performed on a flat, windless road. For each brake, the rider accelerated to 40km/hr then grabbed the brakes — hard — on a pre-determined mark and recorded stopping distance.This test was performed 10 times for each brake, and the stopping distances were averaged. † – Matt Pacocha; Velonews. At the end of the test, the Shimano 7900 dual pivot calliper brake was found to have the greatest braking force, with the shortest stopping distance of 7. 18 metres. It was also found that the average deceleration of the bicycle was 8. 59 m/s2, whilst the greatest deceleration was recorded at 10. 35 m/s2 (Over 1 G-force). Drum Brakes are less powerful than the disc brake, and therefore have a greater stopping distance in normal, controlled conditions.Compared to Calliper brakes it is not clear-cut which has a better stopping distance, as there are many different versions of each type of brake to choose from. However, it is said that the modern drum brake is able to provide a much smoother, more reliable deceleration than the majority of calliper brake systems. Features: Each of these braking systems have their own features which help to enhance the ability to stop the movement of a bicycle. Whilst some of these advantages are purely performance based, others may have features that are cost-effective or maintenance friendly.One of the most important features in the success of the disc brake is its ability to dissipate the heat generated from the frictional forces. Disc brakes are out in the open air with a large surface area, meaning the cooling process happens more quickly and efficiently. Another important, yet perhaps underestimated feature of the disc brake is it’s positioning. Disc brakes are well away from the tyres and ground, thus creating distance between the braking system and m ud, dirt and other potential environmental interferences.Drum brakes however, are certainly the best in resisting those environmental factors. As the braking mechanism itself is housed within a shell of sorts, no amount of weather can have an adverse effect on the ability of the drum brake to perform its task. Once installed, drum brake system is also very low maintenance, and often doesn’t have to be managed again until a new wheel is needed. Despite this, Drum Brakes can be a hassle if maintenance must occur, as they can be difficult to access because of the shell it is housed in. Calliper Brakes are generally the cheapest of the three designs available.As they are often mounted to the bicycle at one single point, accessing the brake pads and cables is made much easier than the other systems. Another feature that is useful on the majority of road bikes with calliper brake systems is the quick release mechanism. This feature is designed as to loosen the brake system enough s o the wheel can be removed without having to mess around with loosening brake cables as well. Materials used for construction and frictional components Brake Pads are perhaps the most important part of both the Disc and Calliper braking systems.The brake pad is generally made from a product that possesses a moderately high coefficient of friction, but also depends on the materials ability to absorb and dissipate the heat produced in the process of braking. If these criteria can be met without having a negative impact on overall braking performance, an appropriate material has been found. In years gone by, an asbestos based compound was the most common material from which brake pads would be made, however because of the toxic nature of asbestos that practise no longer allowed. The modern bicycle Brake Pad is enerally made from rubber compound. The rims on bicycles directly affect the performance of the Calliper braking Systems. Some bike rims today are made from an aluminium alloy, w hich provide a coefficient of friction when in contact with the rubber composite of the brake pads of approximately 0. 4. Other materials, such as various Carbon steels, have recently become more popular as they are light and aerodynamic. However, they do not provide a very good frictional force between the everyday brake pad, and so other materials are often preferred by the everyday cyclist.Calliper brake systems also have brake cables that transfer the motion actuated by the rider from the brake lever to the braking system itself. These brake cables are made from thin wire steel that has been braided together to improve its tensile strength and ability to perform. The Disc in the Disk brake system is an integral part of the bicycles stopping power. The Brake pad (rubber composite) must have a high enough coefficient of friction when applied to the disc to halt movement with damaging the surface.To provide this, the disc is made from metal, with stainless steel being popular among mountain bikes. A brake drum has an outer shell in which the braking system itself is contained. This outer shell is subject to weathering from the outside and heat from within. With this in mid, cast-iron is generally the material chosen as it can cope with these two burdens other materials could falter under. The shoes of the Drum brake are the parts that push outwards to produce the frictional forces needed in the brake design.These brake shoes are generally made when two pieces of sheet steel are welded together. After they are welded together, the frictional material known as brake lining is connected on to the sheet steel with either adhesive resin or other means such as a rivet. It is also important to remember that the rubber composite of bicycle tyres also has frictional forces acting from the material it is rolling on. For instance, if a cyclist was riding along a concrete surface, the coefficient of friction would be 0. 8, much higher than that of rubber or brake lining to metal (0. ). Thankfully, the relatively light weight of the human body – compared to the force exerted by our mechanical braking systems – allows us to still move along these surfaces. (FF = ? RN) How they differ from comparable car systems On most bicycles, the braking systems installed will often be very simplistic and just there to do the job. Most will have the same type of brake on both front and back wheel, with the braking of the bike mostly relying on human action with levers and cables, as well as the mechanical advantage some of these designs provide.However, when upgrading these systems to work on a much heavier vehicle such as a car, many things can change. It is not uncommon to have different types of brakes on the front and back set of wheels, and hydraulics become a very important part of stopping your car. In today’s modern designs, at least one set Disk Brakes are fitted to almost every car on the road. Disk Brakes are the most effective type of braking system that we could fit to our cars, however, it is still common for the front brakes to be disk, but the rear to be drum brakes.Drum brakes can be used as the parking brake, and by fitting them to the rear of the car, companies can save money by not having to install another braking system. The Disc Brake in a car is obviously in a much larger scale than that of a bicycle. Despite this, the two systems are very similar in the basic design concept. Strength of this part however, must be much greater when installed in an Automobile. Winnard & Sons Ltd, a company based in the UK that deals with commercial vehicle braking components, has a guideline to the tensile strength on the brake contact surfaces of their products. Guideline tensile strength on test pieces machined from brake drum/disc contact faces: – 241 N/mm2 European Requirement minimum – 35,000 psi Amercian Requirement minimum† – Winnard & Sons Ltd: Brake Disc and Brake Drum Material S pecification The materials used in the brake pads of both the disk and calliper brakes are different when they are made for cars. When halting the momentum of a car, the brake pad is put under a much greater force than when stopping a bicycle. This is due to a number of things, including the speed at which the car is travelling and the mass of the vehicle, both of which are generally higher in cars.The metals used are usually steel, copper or brass fibres, as well as a mixture of many different composites including – graphite, iron oxide, glass fibres, phosphate and rubber – that are bonded together with a resin of phenol formaldehyde. The metals that are added help to increase life span by improving the ability of the compound to dissipate heat at high speeds. The complexity of all three designs is greatly heightened when moving from bicycle to motor vehicle. One aspect of Motor Vehicle braking that creates extra pressure is the hydraulic action of the brakes.Hydrauli cs rely on brake fluid, typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling unit to the brake mechanism. In a motor vehicle, drum brakes often serve a specific purpose that they would be useless for when installed on a bicycle – the park brake. As I stated earlier, these Drum brakes are fitted to the rear wheels and can save companies significant amounts of money by not having to install a completely separate parking brake. As this asset of an emergency brake is vital to a larger system, not only are they more common in cars, but they must also be bigger and exert a greater force.These three types of braking systems hold the same principles when applied to a greater size vehicle in a motor car, however many things must change to accommodate these increased forces. Conclusion: Each of these three braking systems are often used by a specific type of bicycle with a specific need. An example of this is Disc brakes being preferred by those who ride eith er Mountain or Touring bikes. As shown by the two field tests referenced in this report, completed by Velonews and What Mountain Bike, both Calliper brakes and disc brakes both have a very big potential to have immense stopping power.But to have that stopping power, the proper materials with appropriate frictional forces would have had to been in place. At the absolute top of the line models, every little detail is considered, i. e. : * * Weight * Frictional Forces * Materials * Angle * Type of System It was also discovered that as we transition from bicycle to car braking systems, many things must be altered. Although the basic engineering principles are often the same, there are many variables that are altered to improve to braking systems to cope with the extra forces exerted by a motor vehicle.For example, the change in materials of brake pads to accommodate the much more intense levels of heat being produced when heavy braking is taking place. I believe this report reveals that the braking system you own can make a big difference on effectiveness and performance. The features, materials used and frictional forces in play can all be positive or negative depending on the type of riding taking place. Recommendations: I recommend selecting one of these three types of braking systems based on what their use in the long run will be.If you plan to use the bike for competitive purposes when increased stopping power is necessary, I would suggest purchasing a Disc brake system. However, if the bike is simply for leisure, perhaps the more cost effective Calliper Brake system would better suit. If you are planning to ride in muddy areas where the possibility of substances interfering with the frictional forces throughout the braking system, the fully enclosed drum brake system could be the appropriate option. However, if you wish to simply have the greatest overall stopping power, I would recommend a Disk Brake system be installed. The most mportant thing to remember is that every situation is unique, and to do research in order to attain the correct brake for your needs. 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